The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The French Revolution (1789) was the first clear expression of nationalism. It led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to the body of French citizens. Revolutionary ideas like 'La Patrie' (the fatherland) and 'Le Citoyen' (the citizen) emphasised the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the royal standard, and new hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.

The main aim of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was to undo most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars and to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon, thereby creating a new conservative order.

Two provisions of the Treaty:

1. The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to power.
2. A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in the future. For example, the Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium) was set up in the north, and Piedmont was given new territories in the south.
3. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of Northern Italy.
4. The German Confederation of 39 states (created by Napoleon) was left untouched.

For the new middle classes in 19th-century Europe, 'liberalism' stood for:

• Individual freedom: Freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law.
• Government by consent: Politically, it emphasised the concept of government by consent, i.e., rule through a constitution and representative government through parliament.
• End of aristocracy: The inviolability of private property and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

The Zollverein was a customs union formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German states. It played a significant role in economic unification:

• It abolished tariff barriers, fostering free trade among member states.
• It reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to just two, simplifying commercial transactions.
• It created a network of railways that further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification, creating a sense of shared economic identity.

The Frankfurt Parliament, convened in May 1848, was an attempt by the middle-class professionals, businessmen, and prosperous artisans to unite the different German regions into a nation-state under an elected parliament. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. However, it failed because:

• Frederick William IV, King of Prussia, rejected the crown offered on these terms.
• The opposition of the aristocracy and military grew stronger.
• The social base of the parliament was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans, thereby losing their support.
• The issue of extending political rights to women caused controversy, leading to their exclusion from proceedings.

Despite its failure, it was a significant step towards German unification and highlighted the liberal aspirations of the middle classes.

Napoleon introduced several changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories he conquered:

• Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code): This code did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured the right to property.
• Administrative Simplification: In the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions.
• Abolition of Feudal System: The feudal system was abolished, and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues.
• Guild Restrictions Removed: In towns, guild restrictions were removed, promoting trade and economic activity.
• Transport and Communication: Transport and communication systems were improved.
• Standardised Weights and Measures: A uniform system of weights and measures was introduced, along with a common national currency, facilitating trade.

These reforms were welcomed initially in many places as they brought greater efficiency and rationality, though the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility as increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription to conquer the rest of Europe outweighed the benefits.

Romanticism, a cultural movement, played a significant role in developing nationalist sentiment by focusing on emotion, intuition, and mystical feelings. It argued that a true German culture was to be discovered among the common people (das Volk), through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances. This emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore was not just about recovering an ancient national spirit, but also about carrying the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.

• Language as a unifying force: In regions like Poland, which had been partitioned by great powers, language became a powerful tool of national resistance. Even after its absorption by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, Polish was used in church gatherings and all religious instruction, becoming a symbol against Russian dominance.
• Collection of local folklore: Figures like Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that through folk culture, the true spirit of the nation (Volksgeist) could be discovered and that it was essential to the project of nation-building.
• Emphasis on common cultural heritage: Romantics glorified imagination and intuition over reason and science, believing that this cultural approach could create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.

Thus, culture and language became crucial in creating a sense of collective identity, fostering nationalist feelings among diverse populations where political unity might have been lacking.

Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. It was divided into seven states, of which only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.

• Giuseppe Mazzini (The Revolutionary): During the 1830s, Mazzini sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He formed secret societies like 'Young Italy' and 'Young Europe', advocating for a unified Italy based on the will of the people. His revolutionary uprisings failed, but his ideas inspired future generations.
• Count Camillo de Cavour (The Statesman): As Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, Cavour led the movement to unify Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He masterminded a shrewd diplomatic alliance with France (1859), which resulted in Sardinia-Piedmont defeating the Austrian forces. This freed the northern part of Italy from Austrian Habsburgs.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi (The Volunteer): In 1860, Garibaldi led a large number of armed volunteers, famously known as the 'Red Shirts', into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. With the support of local peasants, they succeeded in driving out the Spanish Bourbon rulers.
• Completion of Unification: In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of unified Italy. Venetia (1866) and the Papal States (1870) were annexed later, completing the unification process.

Thus, through a combination of revolutionary zeal, diplomatic skill, and military campaigns, Italy was unified under the House of Savoy.